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• 1 2025-04-14T22:13:47+00:00 Literature in the Age of Simulation: Jorge Luis Borges' Literature from a Structuralist Perspective 73 By incorporating transtextual elements and directly addressing the fictitious nature of his stories, Borges poses fundamental questions surrounding society’s grasp on the nature of Reality and the Truth. image_header 2025-05-18T15:03:47+00:00 In an age where simulations are indistinguishable from the original, how does society make meaning with truth, and what values lies in the original? While virtual reality, misinformation and the growing capabilities of generative AI are currently being heralded as signifying features of the growing gap between reality and simulation, these merely make up part of a much larger trend of escapism dating as far back as the Classical age. This trend was popularized primarily by Postmodernist philosophers, as artists began using new mediums to explore the growing space between reality and simulation. This paper will explore how Jorge Luis Borges
  
  This paper will explore how Jorge Luis Borges uses intertextual relationships in “Pierre Menard, Author of Don Quixote” and “Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius” to explore the disparity between societal constructs such as language and literature, and reality.
  
  By incorporating Transtextual components and directly addressing the fictitious nature of his stories, Borges highlights the tenuous connection society has between social constructs and Truth. 
  
  Central Philosophy and Literary Theory
  Though the field of study became more prominent during the late 20th century amidst Postmodern philosophy, thinkers have been using literature to explore these metaphysical questions since the Classical age. Examining Borges’ works, the writings of Plato, Ferdinand de Saussure, Roland Barthes, Gerard Genette, and Jean Baudrillard are particularly relevant for the insight they offer into society’s connection with reality. 
  
  As a foundational philosopher, Plato’s thinking would go on to influence generations of further thinkers and artists, including Borges. Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave” offers valuable insight into both “Pierre Menard…” and “Tlön  Uqbar…”. As a foundational semiotic text, Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave” breaks down how society comes to terms with reality, exploring the effects that reliance on symbols has on individuals in groups. 
  
  Advancing to the twentieth century, Barthes is another crucial philosopher to understand when examining how Borges uses his works to explore constructed reality. Expanding off the ideas of Claude Levi-Strauss and Ferdinand de Saussure, Barthes would become known for his insight into the social mythologies that structure everyday thinking. The most notable work in this study of Borges is his dialogue on the culminate in his publication of Mythologies in 1957. Being composed primarily of essays exploring trends in modern society, Mythologies concludes with an examination of the semiotic structures that inform thinking about literature. 
  
  Building from the ideas of Barthes and Levi-Strauss, Gerard Genette expanded these notions when exploring the methods in which literary works connect to larger questions of Semiotics. Formalizing the notions of Transtextuality, or the “textual transcendence of the text,” in his work Palimpsests, Genette addresses five core divisions that make up this construct.  These include: Intertextuality, the authors use of quoting / paraphrasing; Paratext, the incorporation of extratextual details like prologue, title, subtitle; Metatextuality, also referred to as commentary; Hypertextuality, connections between multiple texts; and Architextuality, the author’s intentional use of features addressing the artifice of the text. [1] Genette’s notions would be core to the development of the field of Narratology, which offers scholars a medium to explore the how the methods stories are told create meaning amongst readers. 
  
  Finally, Jean Baudrillard’s commentary surrounding the illusions that are prevalent in modern society offers additional insight into Borges’ writing. In the field of Structuralism, Jean Baudrillard would go on to explore how ‘false’ structures influence modern thinking, most notably in his 1981 work: Simulacra and Simulation. In his opening, as he describes the presence of these “Simulacra” in reality, he highlights that: “Today abstraction is no longer that of the map, the double, the mirror, or the concept. Simulation is no longer that of a territory, a referential being, or a substance.” [2]  In addressing the gap between simulation and reality, he poses the concept of “Hyperreality”, or a reality that relies on the presence of the “Absolute Fake” [3].  Baudrillard’s assertions on the “simulated” nature of reality will be further explored in the coming sections featuring “Tlön  Uqbar…”.
  
  "Pierre Menard..." as Hypertext
  Considering Borges’ writing, “Pierre Menard…” serves as an example of Genette’s concept of Transtextuality, which Borges uses to advcance his assertions on how members of society make meaning with reality. When examining this work, Borges’ metatextual commentary and his parody of Cervantes’ literary devices offer valuable insight into how society connects with reality and the truth. 
  
  One of the ways Borges examines the disconnect between truth and reality is through incorporating Metatext in the story of “Pierre Menard…” His commentary on the fictional Pierre Menard’s recreation of Don Quixote, accentuates his claims by demonstrating readers make meaning with text, rather than authors. As Borges asserts when examining the “differences” between the original and Pierre Menard’s version, he claims "The contrast in styles is equally striking. The archaic style of Menard – who is, in addition, not a native speaker of the language in which he writes – is somewhat affected. Not so the style of [Cervantes], who employs the Spanish of his time with complete naturalness." [4] Through comparing two passages that are identical on paper, Borges uses irony to show how reality relies upon the observer, not the observed. As Barthes addresses in his 1967 essay: "A text consists of multiple writings, issuing from several cultures and entering into dialogue with each other, into parody, into contestation; but there is one place where this multiplicity is collected, united, and this place is not the author, as we have hitherto said it was, but the reader." [5] Through acknowledging the power that readers maintain, this supports the notion that “Reality” is not objective. This is relevant in today’s fragmented society as fake news and misinformation becomes increasingly prevalent means to sow discord . While placing the power to find meaning in the position of the reader is inherently a dangerous notion, as Borges and Barthes highlight, this is an inevitable conclusion in the age of simulation. 
  
  
  Furthermore, Barthes addresses that “the reader is the very space in which are inscribed, without any being lost, all the citations a writing consists of; the unity of a text is not in its origin, it is in its destination.” [6] Shifting the author from the foreground, this offers a distinct sense of responsibility to readers. By establishing the reader’s responsibility for the task of discerning reality, Borges offers commentary on the methods in which society understands truth. By showing that truth is not objective, nor is it established by a sole authority (e.g. the Author), this reflects his acknowledgement of the gap between “Truth” and reality. 
  
  While the individuals inside of Plato’s allegorical “Cave” may each make meaning with the shadows on the wall differently, it is not until individuals are able to “Escape” the cave and see reality unfiltered that they are able to fully understand. These points are particularly relevant to consider in contemporary times, as it has become easier to mislead readers with the use of AI and false publications. Though Borges’ story predates Orwell’s own commentary on the nature of surveillance and memory by nine years (i.e. The Ministry of Truth in1984), the themes it highlights are similar. 
  
  "Tlon Uqbar..." as Simulacrum
  Borges’ story, “Tlön  Uqbar…” offers a study into the practice of simulation. When examining this work, the Borges’ use of Language, Hyperreality offer insight into how society makes meaning with reality.
  
  Throughout “Tlon Uqbar…”, Borges explores the narrow line between what is fabricated and real. As the narrator of the story’s curiosity drives him to uncover information about the mysterious, secret society: “Orbis Tertius,” he ultimately learns about the influence this fictional reality has on the reality. Through learning more about the philosophy and linguistic structure of the fictional Tlon, the narrator reflects on the many differences that lie between the societies. 
  
  This coincides with Baudrillard’s notions throughout Simulations and Simulacra. Borges’ opening line offers coincidentally overlaps with the numerous assertions Baudrillard and Eco defend in their explorations on Hyperreality, as he highlights “I owe the discovery of Uqbar to the conjunction of a mirror and an encyclopedia.” [7] This decision to open this narrative with two recurring symbols that are omnipresent in the story, the mirror and encyclopedia, is an intentional one. Both serve as symbols for how society “duplicates” objects and the utility of these objects is directly influenced by their accuracy. Borges includes these to force readers to question what happens when these tools are no longer based in truth. 
  
  Furthermore, as an author fascinated with the power in language,  Borges’ uses the analysis of Tlon to expand upon how language influences society’s perceptions on reality. Contrasting the language of Tlon with the languages of Earth, he identifies that “their language and the derivations of their language –religion, letters, metaphysics– all presuppose idealism.” [8] This supports the perspectives of Barthes’ and Levi-Strauss’ perspective on Structuralism, as they studied the significant impact language and semiotics have in altering the way reality is perceived. As Sturrock addresses in the opening of his chapter on Language, “language is the central institution of any society.” [9] Recognizing the power that society invests in language is crucial to understanding Structuralist perspectives. As Borges highlights, In the language of Tlon, their idealistic language leads to challenges in understanding concepts that seem ridiculous to individuals outside the cultural context of Tlon. [10] Again, by posing scenarios that seem bizarre and abstract, as in "Pierre Menard...," Borges prompts readers to consider how societal structures like language and literature modify our interaction with the world. 
  
  Furthering this claim, Sturrock highlights that, "Many people assume that signifieds pre-exist signifiers, or that meanings 'await' expression. The effect of that assumption is to assimilate the signifieds, stored up as they must be in some pre-verbal repository, to the infinite number of potential referents in the world, which undeniably do pre-exist their human investment by language." [11] Sturrock’s assertions surrounding human involvement in the process of assigning meaning to Signifieds emphasize the role language has in shaping perception on reality. By showing that it is only when individuals attach signifiers to the signified, that these ideas are able to be shared and communicated, this further highlights that gap between reality, and humanities expression of reality. Furthermore, Borges’ depiction of the language of Tlon aligns with this perspective on language. While the methods individuals in the society of Tlon use to measure and understand reality seem bizarre and abstract in comparison, Borges intentionally addresses these differences to accentuate how drastically language shapes thought. 
  
  Considering these points, Shapiro et al. expands upon these notions by addressing how “[Simulacrum and Hyperreality] allow, for example, to shed light on the urgent problem of ‘post-truth’.” [12]  With the rise of the internet, misinformation campaigns, and even generative AI, Borges’ literary Hyperreality of Tlon is an early example of the ways simulated objects ultimately shape reality. Though he predated the rise of the internet, misinformation campagins, and generative AI, the dialgoues Borges poses offer real insight into the dangers of unchecked Hyperreality. 
  
  Conclusions
  By demonstrating the gap between social constructs and reality, Borges highlights the space that exists between perceived reality, and true reality. By utilizing philosophical frameworks initiated by Plato, and expanded upon by twentieth century Structuralist philosophers, Borges demonstrates how the structures that allow individuals to make meaning within society are not fixed. Only through recognizing the fabricated nature of this perception are individuals able to independently draw conclusions and better understand the reality they inhabit.   
  
  Footnotes:  
  1.  Gerard Genette, Palimpsests (University of Nebraska Press, 1997): 1-5.
  2.  Jean Baudrillard, Simulation and Simulacra (University of Michigan Press, 1994): 8.
  3.  Umberto Eco, Travels in Hyperreality (San Diego, 1986): 8. 
  4.  Jorge Luis Borges, “Pierre Menard, Author of Don Quixote,” (Sur, 1939): 94.
  5.  Roland Barthes, “Death of the Author,” (New York, 1967): 6.  
  6.  Ibid, 5-6.
  7.  Jorge Luis Borges, “Tlon, Uqbar, and Orbis Tertius,” (Sur, 1940): 3.
  8. Ibid, 8.
  9.  John Sturrock, Structuralism, (Newark, 2003): 33.
  10. See Borges' example of the coin fallacy. Borges, "Tlon, Uqbar...," 9-10 
  11. Sturrock, Structuralism, 44.
  12. Alan Shapiro, Decoding Digital Culture with Science Fiction, (Digital Society, 2024): 12.
  Full Paper and Citations: Linked here